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Teachers as supporters of self-regulated learning

Students in HBO (Higher Vocational Education) and WO (Universities) have increasing freedom in how, when, where, and what they learn. It is essential for students to take the lead in their own learning processes. How can we, as teachers, integrate self-regulated learning into our teaching and support students in developing these skills?

In this interview, Brigitte ten Brink and Sjirk Zijlstra discuss this topic with Anique de Bruin, Professor of Self-regulation in Higher Education and Vice-Director of School of Health Professions Education at Maastricht University, and Peter Verkoeijen, Lecturer in Brain and Learning at Avans University of Applied Sciences, and Professor of Educational Psychology at Erasmus University. Both are also project leaders associated with the SELFLEX consortium.

This article is a summary of the first episode of the SELFLEX SESSIES podcast. Listen to the full episode here (in Dutch) or visit the main page for more summaries:

	About Self-Regulating Learning skills

	Research on self-regulated learning skills often uses Zimmerman’s (2002) model, which is also the focus of SELFLEX. This model identifies three phases of self-regulated learning: the forethought, performance and self-reflection phases. The forethought phase includes activities such as orienting oneself to the task, setting goals, and planning. Following this is the implementation phase, where the student monitors their own progress and, if necessary, adjusts their approach. The reflection phase involves considering the outcome, evaluating the process, and drawing conclusions for further learning. Additionally, each phase involves the ability to self-motivate, direct thoughts and behaviors, and regulate emotions.

Curious about Self-Regulated Learning? Check out our seminar series HERE

1. Personal

How did you self-regulate your learning during your studies?

Anique de Bruin: During my studies, I was immersed in a problem-based educational environment, which played a crucial role in my self-regulation. We had a lot of freedom and were required to engage heavily in self-study. Within teaching groups, alongside fellow students and under the guidance of a tutor, we formulated learning goals. I quickly developed a rhythm of self-regulation, taking learning objectives seriously and actively seeking out literature in the library. Meeting deadlines and contributing to the group process were essential to me. However, during a semester in Spain, where my only obligation was an exam at the end, I felt unmotivated. This experience underscored for me the significance of the learning environment in self-regulation.

Peter Verkoeijen: My experience was quite similar to Anique’s, also within the problem-based learning environment at Maastricht University. I prepared well for the group meetings by going to the library and reviewing the material. I employed effective learning strategies such as retrieval practice, explaining the material to myself. However, I never planned on paper and memorized everything without taking notes.

2. The meaning of self-regulated learning and flexible higher education

What exactly does flexible higher education entail?

What is self-regulated learning?

Peter Verkoeijen: Flexibility means that students have the freedom to design their own learning processes in a specific way. Flexibility has always been an aspect of higher education because students often learn independently, without direct guidance from instructors. During self-study time, students have significant freedom to decide how, when, with whom and where they learn (flexibility in learning approaches). Today, flexibility regarding content is particularly increasing. Students have more and more opportunities within programs to shape their own learning trajectory in terms of content. Within SELFLEX, we refer to this as flexibility in learning trajectories. The challenge lies in understanding how students can navigate independently in such an environment and achieve meaningful learning outcomes.

Anique de Bruin: Self-regulated learning (SRL), based on Zimmerman’s (2002) theory, can be defined as the process by which learners take control of the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and emotional components of their learning through planning, monitoring and reflection. SRL is often mistaken for a type of instruction or method, but it is a process that always occurs when someone is learning. Another frequently used term is self-directed learning. This term originates from a different theoretical perspective, more from adult education and problem-based learning, and emphasizes the element of choice. Self-regulated learning differs from independent learning. Independent learning involves learning without supervision or support, whereas SRL requires substantial support.

3. The role of the student

What does a student who self-regulates in flexible learning approaches demonstrate?		What is the importance of being able to self-regulate learning?
Nneka (student): As a first-year student, I sometimes find it difficult to start reports or projects because I don’t always know where to begin. During the course, I notice that it becomes easier once I understand what to do, and my motivation returns. At the end of the course, I feel the pressure to finish, which helps me do my best, although sometimes it is stressful. I try to motivate myself by reminding myself that I enjoy the course and want to pass it. I make a rough schedule of what I want to accomplish each day, which helps me relax, but I need to ensure I stick to it. I assess myself by evaluating if I truly understand the material and sometimes quiz myself using charts. My teachers provide effective study methods where I can review the material with others.		Anique de Bruin: Effective self-regulated learning directly impacts academic skills and outcomes. It better prepares students for the work environment and enhances their overall well-being. Research indicates that students generally find SRL skills challenging. Freedom in higher education requires a better understanding of what these SRL processes look like and how we can improve the quality of these processes. It is often assumed that if we expose students to flexibility, the skills will naturally follow, but that often does not prove to be the case.

Anique de Bruin: Nneka describes clear strategies in the performance phase, as outlined by Zimmerman. She possesses metacognitive knowledge about what works and what doesn’t. In the planning phase, she combines this knowledge with experience and understands that detailed planning does not work for her. She reflects on her learning, but could delve deeper into evaluating her understanding.		What does a student demonstrate who self-regulates in flexible learning trajectories?
Many students struggle with or do not yet recognize the need to seek feedback to verify their comprehension. I would recommend that Nneka take practice tests and seek feedback to obtain clear information about her level of understanding. This can also be done with another student by rehearsing together. It is important that courses facilitate practice tests because they have a metacognitive function and give students feedback on their level of knowledge. Peter Verkoeijen: What stood out to me is how Nneka attempts to motivate herself. Passing the exam is very important to her (performance oriented), but she also finds the subjects interesting (intrinsic value of the task). This helps her to persevere even when it is difficult. I believe it is important for teachers to convey why a subject is meaningful to students, not only to pass a test but also for their future profession. This can help students stay motivated even if they find the subject less interesting. It is also good to engage with students about why something is important and ask them why they think it is important to learn. Anique de Bruin: One of the critical things we can teach students is how to manage fluctuations in motivation. It is unrealistic to expect students to always be intrinsically motivated. It is crucial to teach them strategies to remain motivated even when they find a subject less interesting. This is a process between students and teachers, and between students themselves.		Peter Verkoeijen: Self-regulated learning is crucial in flexible learning trajectories, influencing both the choice process and implementation. You can view the choice process as a self-regulated learning process according to Zimmerman’s model. In the forethought phase, it is beneficial for students to consider their approach to the choice process and what motivational factors (self-efficacy, values, interests) are significant to them. In the performance phase, students should monitor if they are “on track”. Are students making choices based on what they think is important? Upon completion of the choice process, it is essential for students to reflect on their decisions and improve the process as needed. Moreover, flexibility in learning trajectories can lead to autonomous motivation and enhanced performance. Freedom of choice can positively affect motivation and self-regulation. However, it is vital to investigate how this process works in higher education and under what conditions.

4. The role of the teacher

What can we share with teachers and educational experts about working principles that seem to work well or not so well?		Do you have any tips or advice for formulating learning objectives or assessments, in particular?		What kinds of activities can we recommend to teachers to encourage students to develop in those self-regulated skills?
Anique de Bruin: Supporting self-regulated learning is highly context-dependent. Zimmerman’s general model can be applied effectively, but the interpretation varies by context. It is important for teachers to be explicit in their explanations and guidance. They must not only demonstrate, but also articulate and discuss what is crucial in the SRL process -more explicit than one might expect- and practicing this is essential. Peter Verkoeijen: It is critical that teachers are knowledgeable about the concept and the misconceptions surrounding it. Teachers need to adapt the principles from the theory to their specific context. They must reflect on how to support self-regulated learning in their practice. This requires both practical and scientific knowledge. Teachers and researchers are ‘equal partners’ in this. Evidence-informed work combines various sources of knowledge.		Anique de Bruin: When formulating learning objectives and assessments, it is important to forster self-regulated learning over time. Portfolio teaching, such as reflection portfolios, offers a good opportunity to observe the extent to which students develop reflection skills. Assessment should occur not only at the content level but also at the SRL or meta-level. It is important that students understand not only what to learn, but also how to learn. Peter Verkoeijen: Reflection is a crucial component of assessment, particularly in HBO. Students find reflection useful but are sometimes critical of its design and implementation in the curriculum. It is important to think about how reflection can be made meaningful. Anique de Bruin: Autonomy plays a critical role here; if students are given autonomy in setting learning goals, they are more willing to reflect on their progress and development.		Peter Verkoeijen: I think it is important to teach students something about what learning actually means, what deep learning entails, and how self-regulated learning works. This can be done through courses or subjects focused on effective learning, but making these skills explicit and integrating them into content areas and practicums is crucial. Students need to see how to apply these skills when completing assignments. This requires strong collaboration among teachers and a shared focus on self-regulated learning. Some teachers assume that students in higher education know how to learn independently, but it is important to support them in this regard.

What can we share with teachers and educational experts about working principles that seem to work well or not so well?

Do you have any tips or advice for formulating learning objectives or assessments, in particular?

What kinds of activities can we recommend to teachers to encourage students to develop in those self-regulated skills?

Anique de Bruin: Supporting self-regulated learning is highly context-dependent. Zimmerman’s general model can be applied effectively, but the interpretation varies by context. It is important for teachers to be explicit in their explanations and guidance. They must not only demonstrate, but also articulate and discuss what is crucial in the SRL process -more explicit than one might expect- and practicing this is essential.

Peter Verkoeijen: It is critical that teachers are knowledgeable about the concept and the misconceptions surrounding it. Teachers need to adapt the principles from the theory to their specific context. They must reflect on how to support self-regulated learning in their practice. This requires both practical and scientific knowledge. Teachers and researchers are ‘equal partners’ in this. Evidence-informed work combines various sources of knowledge.

Anique de Bruin: When formulating learning objectives and assessments, it is important to forster self-regulated learning over time. Portfolio teaching, such as reflection portfolios, offers a good opportunity to observe the extent to which students develop reflection skills. Assessment should occur not only at the content level but also at the SRL or meta-level. It is important that students understand not only what to learn, but also how to learn.

Peter Verkoeijen: Reflection is a crucial component of assessment, particularly in HBO. Students find reflection useful but are sometimes critical of its design and implementation in the curriculum. It is important to think about how reflection can be made meaningful.

Anique de Bruin: Autonomy plays a critical role here; if students are given autonomy in setting learning goals, they are more willing to reflect on their progress and development.

Peter Verkoeijen: I think it is important to teach students something about what learning actually means, what deep learning entails, and how self-regulated learning works. This can be done through courses or subjects focused on effective learning, but making these skills explicit and integrating them into content areas and practicums is crucial. Students need to see how to apply these skills when completing assignments. This requires strong collaboration among teachers and a shared focus on self-regulated learning. Some teachers assume that students in higher education know how to learn independently, but it is important to support them in this regard.

5. Tools that can support SRL

What is the Study Smart tool and how does it contribute to students’ self-regulated learning?		What is Breineducatie and how does it contribute to students’ self-regulated learning?
Anique de Bruin: Study Smart was developed from a self-regulated learning perspective, focusing on cognitive learning strategies. At Maastricht University, we wanted to provide students with concrete tools during the self-study phase. Study Smart is a training program offered in groups, led by an instructor who guides the process. Students learn about effective learning strategies, practice these strategies, and reflect on their own strategies. Research shows that Study Smart is effective; students’ knowledge and use of effective learning strategies increases and low-performing students improve their performance. We demonstrate its effectiveness to students by encouraging them to take small steps, such as repeating material and taking practice tests for half an hour each week. Implementing new strategies can be challenging for students. Study Smart addresses all elements of the self-regulation cycle, including planning, setting learning goals, and reflection, with the emphasis on cognitive learning strategies.		Peter Verkoeijen: Breineducatie is an online module designed primarily to support HBO students in their self-study efforts. However, it is reasonable to assume that the module is also suitable for university students. The module was developed through collaboration among teachers, educational advisors and students, primarily from Avans Hogeschool. Breineducatie covers metacognitive knowledge about how learning works and effective cognitive learning strategies. It also includes exercises to practice these strategies. Additionally, the module addresses self-efficacy, beliefs about one’s own competence, and how to manage procrastination. Although we have not yet conducted formal research on it, user evaluations from both teachers and students have been positive.

What is the Study Smart tool and how does it contribute to students’ self-regulated learning?

What is Breineducatie and how does it contribute to students’ self-regulated learning?

Anique de Bruin: Study Smart was developed from a self-regulated learning perspective, focusing on cognitive learning strategies. At Maastricht University, we wanted to provide students with concrete tools during the self-study phase. Study Smart is a training program offered in groups, led by an instructor who guides the process. Students learn about effective learning strategies, practice these strategies, and reflect on their own strategies. Research shows that Study Smart is effective; students’ knowledge and use of effective learning strategies increases and low-performing students improve their performance. We demonstrate its effectiveness to students by encouraging them to take small steps, such as repeating material and taking practice tests for half an hour each week. Implementing new strategies can be challenging for students. Study Smart addresses all elements of the self-regulation cycle, including planning, setting learning goals, and reflection, with the emphasis on cognitive learning strategies.

Peter Verkoeijen: Breineducatie is an online module designed primarily to support HBO students in their self-study efforts. However, it is reasonable to assume that the module is also suitable for university students. The module was developed through collaboration among teachers, educational advisors and students, primarily from Avans Hogeschool. Breineducatie covers metacognitive knowledge about how learning works and effective cognitive learning strategies. It also includes exercises to practice these strategies. Additionally, the module addresses self-efficacy, beliefs about one’s own competence, and how to manage procrastination. Although we have not yet conducted formal research on it, user evaluations from both teachers and students have been positive.

6. Teacher support

How can we effectively support teachers in implementing all this advice?
Anique de Bruin: It is important to have a shared knowledge base within the organization and to create clarity amidst the myriad of terms and concepts. We need to engage in discussions about what we aim to achieve collectively. Peter Verkoeijen: At Avans Hogeschool, we have experience with knowledge transfer, but it is also important to apply this in practice. A sustainable collaboration among a group of teachers facilitates this. We need to implement well-reasoned approaches in practice and evaluate their outcomes. This requires a research cycle where we consider the challenges, the necessary knowledge, the practical implementation, and the evaluation.

How can we effectively support teachers in implementing all this advice?

Anique de Bruin: It is important to have a shared knowledge base within the organization and to create clarity amidst the myriad of terms and concepts. We need to engage in discussions about what we aim to achieve collectively.

Peter Verkoeijen: At Avans Hogeschool, we have experience with knowledge transfer, but it is also important to apply this in practice. A sustainable collaboration among a group of teachers facilitates this. We need to implement well-reasoned approaches in practice and evaluate their outcomes. This requires a research cycle where we consider the challenges, the necessary knowledge, the practical implementation, and the evaluation.

7. The future of self-regulation in education

What will the research consortium SELFLEX investigate?		What change would you like to see in education?
Anique de Bruin: Together with Peter and Esther van der Stappen, we have identified the themes of flexibility, technology, motivation, and autonomy as important. We are focusing on five work packages: Better understanding how self-regulation occurs in flexible learning approaches, with an emphasis on co-regulation, i.e. how students can support each other and how teachers can support students in this. Better understanding how self-regulation occurs in flexible learning trajectories, with an emphasis on selecting subjects and constructing curricula. Investigating the role technology plays in supporting self-regulation within flexible learning approaches and learning trajectories. Examining the role autonomy and motivation play in flexible learning approaches and flexible learning trajectories. Assessing the relevance of our work to others and determining how we can effectively disseminate it. Peter Verkoeijen: The existence of our consortium already has a significant impact. Teachers have questions about self-regulated learning, and we can provide answers based on the literature. We have a website where teachers can find information. We hope that, in a few years, we will be able to offer evidence-informed guidance on how to support students in self-regulated learning.		Anique de Bruin: I would advocate for encouraging and integrating more self-testing into the curriculum. This is a relatively small change, but there is substantial evidence that it is effective. Repeated self-testing allows students to measure their knowledge of certain concepts multiple times. This not only helps increase their knowledge but also their awareness of knowledge. Self-tests should be part of summative assessments to ensure that students actually utilize them. Peter Verkoeijen: For flexible learning trajectories, I would pay emphasize helping students make informed choices. Many students need good information and guidance during the choice process, but not an overload of options. This includes explaining why they make certain choices, how these choices align with their goals, and what resources they use. It is also important to investigate whether providing choice actually leads to better learning outcomes.

What will the research consortium SELFLEX investigate?

What change would you like to see in education?

Anique de Bruin: Together with Peter and Esther van der Stappen, we have identified the themes of flexibility, technology, motivation, and autonomy as important. We are focusing on five work packages:

Better understanding how self-regulation occurs in flexible learning approaches, with an emphasis on co-regulation, i.e. how students can support each other and how teachers can support students in this.
Better understanding how self-regulation occurs in flexible learning trajectories, with an emphasis on selecting subjects and constructing curricula.
Investigating the role technology plays in supporting self-regulation within flexible learning approaches and learning trajectories.
Examining the role autonomy and motivation play in flexible learning approaches and flexible learning trajectories.
Assessing the relevance of our work to others and determining how we can effectively disseminate it.

Peter Verkoeijen: The existence of our consortium already has a significant impact. Teachers have questions about self-regulated learning, and we can provide answers based on the literature. We have a website where teachers can find information. We hope that, in a few years, we will be able to offer evidence-informed guidance on how to support students in self-regulated learning.

Anique de Bruin: I would advocate for encouraging and integrating more self-testing into the curriculum. This is a relatively small change, but there is substantial evidence that it is effective. Repeated self-testing allows students to measure their knowledge of certain concepts multiple times. This not only helps increase their knowledge but also their awareness of knowledge. Self-tests should be part of summative assessments to ensure that students actually utilize them.

Peter Verkoeijen: For flexible learning trajectories, I would pay emphasize helping students make informed choices. Many students need good information and guidance during the choice process, but not an overload of options. This includes explaining why they make certain choices, how these choices align with their goals, and what resources they use. It is also important to investigate whether providing choice actually leads to better learning outcomes.

Key takeaways

Analyze the specific learning environment and needs of students, and adapt self-regulation support accordingly.
Provide a learning environment (e.g., problem-based learning environment) that encourages autonomy and self-responsibility, such as setting one’s own learning goals, conducting independent literature searches, and engaging in (group) projects,
Clearly explain what self-regulated learning entails, demonstrate the steps and strategies such as goal setting, planning and self-reflection, and have students practice these skills within regular courses. In doing so, pay explicit attention to cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and emotional components of learning.
Teach students how to plan, monitor, and reflect effectively using (digital) tools (e.g., Breineducatie, Study Smart, practice tests, and reflection portfolios).
Provide regular practice tests so students can assess their knowledge and receive feedback, aiding in the metacognitive evaluation of their learning.
Implement practice tests as part of summative assessments to ensure that students actually use them to measure and improve their knowledge.
Integrate reflection portfolios into the curriculum to evaluate and promote the development of self-regulatory skills.
Give students targeted feedback on their self-regulatory skills.
Test not only on content but also at the SRL or meta-level. It is important that students understand not only what to learn but also how to learn.
Emphasize the intrinsic value of subjects and relevance to future professions to keep students motivated, even if they find the subject less interesting.
Help students discover what motivates them by having regular conversations about their personal values, interests and goals and incorporate these into learning activities
Offer guidance in making choices
Establish a shared understanding of SRL and a common focus on SRL with colleagues, working together and sharing knowledge.