After the analysis comes the design of education, the largest step within the design cycle. To design education, we use the principle of constructive alignment, developed by Biggs and Tang (1996). According to this principle, in good education the learning objectives, learning activities and testing are exactly aligned. In concrete terms, this means that you only organize activities in the lectures/working groups that are reflected in the learning objectives and that the assessment really tests what the students have learned through these activities, and thus is reflected in the learning objectives. See also the explanation in the assessment cycle.

Why is this so important? If you use this principle in your teaching, you find that it creates a lot of clarity: the students know what they are going to learn during the course (learning objectives) and the activities at home and in the lectures/working groups feel “logical” because they lead to these objectives. The test content and format also does not come out of the blue: students know what is expected of them because they have practiced it during the learning activities. This connection also creates clarity for you and other colleagues: it is logical and clear what students are being assessed on and what students should know and be able to do. When students or teachers experience frustrations within the educational content, we often see that the goals, activities and assessment are not fully aligned.

Backward Design

We recommend to always start with the learning objectives, then scrutinize the assessment, and finally come up with the learning activities. This ensures that the learning activities work toward the assessment.

Step 1. Formulate clear, concrete and specific learning objectives.

Step 2. Design the test form(s) (and possible assessment form(s))

Step 3. Design the learning activities

Download this document (.xlsl, 21KB) to complete these steps for your own course.

Redesign? Determine the impact. In the case of redesign, you can change the course at different “levels”: you can start small (low-impact), or completely (re)design your course (high-impact). Read more about the levels of redesign here and realize that with the different levels of impact, it is also important to look at learning objectives and assessment.

References
Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher education, 32(3), 347-364.

Step 1. Learning objectives

Learning objectives are essential in the educational process. They define what knowledge and skills students should have acquired by the end of a learning activity. They communicate teacher expectations and help students direct their efforts and monitor their own progress. See also step 1 “Design” from the assessment cycle.

Effective learning objectives meet seven crucial criteria:

Criteria	Example DO’S	Example DON’TS
1. They are student-centered: they specify what students should be able to do	The student can …	At the end of this course, one knows …
2. They are specific: they are not formulated too broadly or generally, but make clear what concrete result is to be achieved	The student can define X	The student has knowledge and understanding of a range of topics and their application
3. They include only one goal, not multiple goals at the same time	The student can explain theory X	The student can explain theory X as well as reflect on the relationship between X and Y
4. They cover only the highest level of mastery: it is not necessary to describe all underlying levels of mastery	The student can evaluate a scientific article	The student can explain, analyze and evaluate a scientific article
5. They include measurable action verbs to express tangible actions and behaviors	The student can explain theory X	The student understands theory X
6. They are positively worded and therefore do not contain negations	The student can collaborate constructively	The student cannot resist working individually
7. They are always formulated in the same way	The student can …	The student can … The student is able to … The student knows …

Taxonomy of Bloom

Establishing learning objectives is facilitated by Bloom’s “Taxonomy. This describes different types of mastery levels of learning objectives. The cognitive domain – the ability to take in information and use it in a meaningful way – is classified into six levels, ranging from simply memorizing facts to generating new knowledge (see also step 1 ‘Designing‘ from the test cycle). Additional explanations can be found here.

Each level from Bloom’s taxonomy can be combined with appropriate action verbs. Action verbs focus on tangible tasks, such as describing, designing, listing, and so on. Ambiguous terms such as “understand,” “see,” or “become familiar with” are not suitable as action verbs in learning objectives because they do not indicate concrete actions or behaviors. However, they can be assessed through a tangible task, such as “explain” or “compare. Good examples of action verbs can be found here.

In short, when creating learning objectives, think about the appropriate Bloom level first and then find an appropriate action verb to go with it.

Knowledge and understanding

The terms “knowledge of” and “understanding of” are often used in learning objectives. Not only are they not action verbs, but they are often confused with each other or considered interchangeable. Yet they represent two different levels of learning. ‘Knowledge of’ refers to the acquisition of factual information, e.g., ‘Italian Neorealism began in 1944.’ This information can be reproduced as learned. ‘Understanding of,’ on the other hand, involves a deeper comprehension of knowledge. It presupposes making connections, interpreting facts and describing knowledge in one’s own words. For example, ‘explain why no clear end date for Italian Neorealism can be given‘. This difference is crucial; while “knowledge of” requires reproduction, “understanding of” requires application and interpretation, which implies a different approach in teaching and testing.

Examples

X Upon completion of this course, the student will have knowledge of Italian Neorealism.

V Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to name the characteristics of Italian Neorealism.

X Upon completion of this course, the student will have an understanding of Italian Neorealism.

V Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to explain various historiographical positions on Italian Neorealism.

An example of a well-stated learning objective is:

Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to:

identify and describe the major political developments of Egyptian civilization.
analyze and interpret these developments in their historical context, using primary and secondary sources.

present on paper their analysis in a well-structured and academically sound essay, making proper use of source citations.

Checklist for learning objectives

the learning objective focuses on:

– student learning outcomes, not learning activities or processes	YES/NO
– students‘ knowledge, skills or attitudes	YES/NO

the learning objective contains:

– only one action verb per component	YES/NO
– only verbs that describe tangible tasks	YES/NO
– only the highest proficiency level	YES/NO

The learning objective is:

– measurable/observable	YES/NO
– testable	YES/NO
– specific	YES/NO
– positively formulated	YES/NO
– always formulated in the same way	YES/NO

Step 2. Assessment

After you have formulated the learning objectives, you can start thinking about assessment. This involves both formative tests (interim tests in which you and the students gain insight into their level in relation to the learning objectives) and summative tests (tests to assess students and to close a study component).

There are many different types of tests possible, for example an MC test, open book exam, essay, oral presentation, case study, making a video/podcast/blog or creating a portfolio (click here to see the choice tool assessment). It is recommended to make use of different test forms in your course. The choice of the appropriate test form is determined by the cognitive Bloom level of your learning objectives. Suppose the learning objective is at the Bloom level of “analyze,” then your students will not achieve that level by rehearsing simple facts in an MC test. Tips for constructing good test questions and the number of questions in a test for a reliable result can be found in Step 2 ‘Constructing’ of the test cycle.

Important principles for your test design

There are four important principles to consider when designing your test:

Validity: Are you measuring what you want to measure?
- Content validity: Are you testing what you intended students to learn? Are all learning objectives covered in your testing? Are subjects being tested that are not in your learning objectives?
- Comprehension validity: Are you testing the appropriate level of learning? Are all learning objectives being tested at the right level (Bloom’s Taxonomy) and with the right test format?
Reliability: Are you measuring in a consistent manner? Your tests should produce comparable grades over time (e.g., compared to previous years) and between assessors. Are similar answers assessed the same way and are there no differences between assessors?
Usability: Is the test practical for you as a teacher and for the students? Do you have enough time to develop and review the tests? Do students have enough time to prepare and take the test and are any resources available to them?
Transparency: Are students well informed about the design of the test, what is expected of them, the grading procedure, and the minimum requirements for passing?

See the test cycle for more information.

Test matrix

How will you test whether students have achieved the learning objectives? A test matrix can help. This is an overview of the weighting and distribution of learning objectives, topics and Bloom levels in a test. This makes it immediately clear whether all learning objectives and subject matter are covered by the test.

See step 2 ‘Constructing’ in the test cycle and this page on the DataNose teachers’ site for more information and download this Excel document (.xlsx, 21KB) to create your own test matrix.

Answer model (for exams with closed and open questions)

If you make an exam, it is useful to make an answer model immediately. Such an answer model contains the correct answers, possible example answers and the score per question. This will help you during grading (especially if there are multiple evaluators) and can be used to explain to students how their grade was arrived at.

See Step 2 “Constructing” and Step 4 “Reviewing and grading” in the test cycle for more information.

Grading form and rubric (for assignments)

For written assignments, presentations, portfolios or group assignments, it is helpful to create an assessment form or rubric and share it with your students in advance. This helps your students know what is expected of them and allows you to grade their assignments consistently and objectively.

An assessment form contains a description of the various criteria on which you will grade the student’s work. A rubric is a more comprehensive form in which each criterion is broken down into a number of intermediate levels (e.g., good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory). Several variants of this exist such as the single point or analytical rubric. Each intermediate level includes a description of the criterion and the number of points the student can earn per level. Make sure this rubric is discussed with all assessors in advance to minimize any assessor differences.

See Step 2 “Constructing” and Step 4 “Reviewing and Grading” in the test cycle for more information.

Step 3. Learning activities

Now that the learning objectives have been formulated and you have determined which test form(s) you want to use, you can start determining the learning activities. We tend to focus mainly on the activities that take place during lectures or study groups, while the activities students do at home are just as important. So how do you ensure an ideal fit between all the activities?

Ideal blend

During the design process, we are looking for an ideal blend of learning activities. As a teacher, you initiate activities – both within and outside contact hours – to promote interaction. This involves interaction between the instructor and the students, between the students and the content, and between the students themselves. In line with the UvA educational vision, we strive for a student-centered learning environment where:

students are actively engaged with material;
learn with and from peers;
students are challenged;

digital functionalities are used for enrichment;
activities at home connect to activities during meetings on campus.

Which learning activities fit your learning objectives?

Also consider the level of the learning objective you want to test. If you want your students to be able to make an analysis, it is important to match the learning activities to this level. Build up to this level step by step.

Example: you want your students to be able to analyze a court case. It is then important that your students have first started working at a knowledge level. For example, what laws should they know and what previous cases are important? Perhaps it would then also be wise to first apply the theory they have learned in a concrete situation, for example, through a complex criminal case. In this example, three different teaching activities have now been described at three different Bloom levels.

Looking for inspiration?

Activating teaching methods

UvA teachers and trainers have collected their favorite teaching methods in a cardboard card set. In this card set you will find examples of teaching methods for different categories with practical tips, such as ‘getting to know your students’, ‘activating prior knowledge’ and ‘critical thinking’. Download the card set in .pdf form here (5.699KB). Would you also like a physical card set? Then send an email to your faculty’s TLC.

Create a storyboard of your craft

Are you curious about how to incorporate the various learning activities into a cohesive whole? Within the TLCs, we use several design methods for creating this whole. One hands-on method we use regularly is the ABC learning design method. In a short period of time (about 2 hours) you create an outline of your new teaching or redesign, defining the activities at home and during lectures/workgroups each week.

We recommend that you go through the ABC method at least once with the support of a TLC colleague. Afterwards, participants often indicate that they like experiencing this method with someone outside the team who monitors the process. In this way, you become familiar with the method and can then implement it independently with immediate colleagues using our materials.

Picture made in Miro (external link)