Types of motivation

1. Extrinsic motivation

• Promise of rewards (such as money or a high grade)
• And/or threat of punishment (such as fine or insufficient grade)
• Suitable for simple, rote tasks, that are not challenging or interesting
• But what is learned through the “carrot-and-stick” method does not nestle so well into one’s long-term memory
• Takes away from creativity & originality (of thought)
• Therefore, although it has a time and place, much of what we would like our students to learn, remember and be able to apply to various situations benefits more from an appeal to intrinsic motivation.

For reasons of practicality and tradition, we tend to rely heavily on extrinsic motivation strategies.

2. Intrinsic motivation

• Students do the work (learn/carry out tasks) for its own sake
• Appeal to curiosity, creativity and enjoyment
• Suitable for cognitive, non-repetitive tasks, for which various strategies may be employed
• Emphasis on “trial-and-error” or “finding-out” helps with long-term memory
• Higher-level thinking and flexibility of applying knowledge in different settings.
• Therefore, in higher education, intrinsic motivation tends to promote the type of learning outcomes that we value. However, for reasons of practicality and tradition, our education practices tend to rely more heavily on strategies associated with extrinsic motivation.

Much of what we want our students to learn benefits from an appeal to intrinsic motivation.

3. Internalised motivation

A third, less well-known, type of motivation is known as internalised motivation. It derives from Self-Determination Theory, which defines it as: “the process of taking in values, beliefs or behavioural regulations from external sources and transforming them into one’s own.”

Although Ryan and Deci (the founders of Self-Determination Theory) identify varying degrees of internalisation, they all rely on the need to feel related to other people, and the need to feel competent and be perceived as being competent by others.

Therefore, a student may become interested in a topic, when they see the interest and enthusiasm for that topic in someone they respect or someone they consider as part of their in-group.

Other people can inspire us to become motivated to learn more about a topic.

Relatedness and transparency

It can be very motivating for students when a teacher explicitly explains how reading an article, completing an assignment or participating in a discussion adds to a student’s knowledge and skills, or relates to practical situations in a future workplace. People tend to want to engage in activities whose value and significance they understand. (Together with competence, this forms the basis of Expectancy-Value theory.)

It often benefits students’ motivation if the teacher is very clear about why something is expected of students, why the course has a certain structure, or why it is impossible for a teacher to provide extensive feedback on the work of 150 students within two days, etc. This gives students the feeling that they are taken seriously and respected as adults, while at the same time encouraging them to take responsibility for their own learning process.

The role of autonomy (and autonomy support)

We probably all have experienced the difference between being told exactly what to do and how to do it, versus being given a rough idea of the desired outcome and trusted with finding a way to achieve it ourselves. In the first situation, we are merely executing instructions. In the second, our knowledge, skills and creativity is appealed to. Most people find the second option infinitely more satisfying and motivating.

Even more so than relatedness and competence, our need for autonomy is central to Self-Determination Theory. And for good reason: when activities and tasks are perceived as voluntary or self-endorsed, people tend to be much more committed to them.

Therefore, giving students choices between or within assignments, emphasising aims rather than preconceived processes, and building in creative components helps to satisfy the need for autonomy, and with that, enhance a sense of achievement. It also trains transferability of knowledge and higher-level thinking skills.